Courtesy : Wikipedia

Firefighting

Firefighting is the act of attempting to prevent the spread of and extinguish significant unwanted fires in buildings, vehicles, and woodlands. A firefighter suppresses fires to protect lives, property and the environment.^[1]

Firefighters typically undergo a high degree of technical training.^[1][2] This involves structural firefighting and wildland firefighting. Specialized training includes aircraft firefighting, shipboard firefighting, aerial firefighting, maritime firefighting, and proximity firefighting.

One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations is the toxic environment created by combustible materials. The four major risks are smoke, oxygen deficiency, elevated temperatures, and poisonous atmospheres.^[3] To combat some of these risks, firefighters carry self-contained breathing apparatus. Additional hazards include falls and structural collapse that can exacerbate the problems encountered in a toxic environment.

The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire and to identify the specific risks.

Fires can be extinguished by water, fuel or oxidant removal, or chemical flame inhibition; though, because fires are classified depending on the elements involved, such as grease, paper, electrical, etcetera, a specific type of fire extinguisher may be required. The classification is based on the type of fires that the extinguisher is more suitable for. In the United States, the types of fire are described by the National Fire Protection Association.

The earliest known firefighters were in the city of Rome. In 60 A.D., emperor Nero established a Corps of Vigils (Vigiles) to protect Rome after a disastrous fire. It consisted of 7,000 people equipped with buckets and axes who fought fires and served as police.^[4]

Historic tactics and tools

In the 3rd century B.C., an Alexandrian Greek named Ctesibius made a double force pump called a siphona. As water rose in the chamber, it compressed the air inside, which forced the water to eject in a steady stream through a pipe and nozzle.^[4]

In the 16th century, syringes were also used as firefighting tools, the larger ones being mounted on wheels.^[4] Another traditional firefighting method that survived was the bucket brigade, involving two lines of people formed between the water source and the fire. Typically, men in one of the lines would pass along the full buckets of water toward the fire while in the other line women and children would pass back the empty buckets to be refilled.^[4]

In the 17th century the first “fire engines” were made, notably in Amsterdam.^[4] In 1721, the English inventor Richard Newsham made a popular fire engine that was essentially a rectangular box on wheels filled using a bucket brigade to provide a reservoir while hand-powered pumps supplied sufficient water pressure to douse fires at a distance.^[4]

Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome did not have municipal firefighters. Instead, private individuals relied on their slaves or supporters to take action. They would not only form bucket brigades or attempt to smother smaller fires, but would also demolish or raze nearby buildings to slow the spread of the fire. However, there is no mention of fires being extinguished, rather they were contained and burned themselves out. Ancient Rome did not have an organized firefighting force until the Vigiles were formed during the reign of Augustus.^[5]

The first ever Roman fire brigade was created by Marcus Licinius Crassus. Fires were almost a daily occurrence in Rome, and Crassus took advantage of the fact that Rome had no fire department, by creating his own brigade—500 men strong—which rushed to burning buildings at the first cry of alarm. Upon arriving at the scene, however, the firefighters did nothing while Crassus offered to buy the burning building from the distressed property owner, at a miserable price. If the owner agreed to sell the property, his men would put out the fire; if the owner refused, then they would simply let the structure burn to the ground. After buying many properties this way, he rebuilt them, and often leased the properties to their original owners or new tenants.^[6][7][8][9]

United Kingdom

Prior to the Great Fire of London in 1666, some parishes in the UK had begun to organize rudimentary firefighting crews. After the Great Fire, Nicholas Barbon introduced the first fire insurance. In order to reduce insurance costs, Barbon also formed his own fire brigade, and other companies followed suit.

By the start of the 1800s, insured buildings were identified with a badge or mark indicating that they were eligible for a company’s firefighting services. Buildings not insured with a particular company were left by its firefighters to burn,^[10] unless they happened to be adjacent to an insured building, in which case it was often in the company’s interest to prevent the fire from spreading. In 1833 fire insurance companies in London merged to form The London Fire Company Establishment.

Steam-powered apparatuses were first introduced in the 1850s, allowing a greater quantity of water to be directed onto a fire; in the early 1930s they were superseded by versions powered by an internal combustion engine.

In World War II the Auxiliary Fire Service, and later the National Fire Service, were established to supplement local fire services. Before 1938, there was no countrywide standard for firefighting terms, procedures, ranks, or equipment (such as hose couplings). In the month of August in 1939 with war looking very possible the Fire Service’s act of 1938 came into effect. This unified Great Britain’s fire service and prepared them for the German war machine. During the London Blitz, 700 fire men and 20 fire women , as known during the time period died as a result of heavy bombing, 91 of these perished at the same time defending London. By the end of the London Blitz, 327 firefighters had lost their lives.

Following the war, leaps and bounds came to the fire service striving into the modern era. This included every firefighter being trained with the Mark 4 proto set and reverting to compressed cork helmets.

Firefighting improved even more with the introduction of the Dennis fire appliances that remain iconic in the UK to this day.

Sadly, despite the introduction of more advanced firefighting strategies, tactics, and equipment to British firefighting following the blitz, there have been nearly 300 firefighters killed .

United States

In January 1608, a fire destroyed many of the colonists’ provisions and lodgings in Jamestown, Virginia. Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia were all plagued by fires, and volunteer fire brigades formed soon after such disasters.^[11]

In 1736, Benjamin Franklin founded the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia, which became the standard for volunteer fire organizations. These firefighters had two critical tools: salvage bags and so-called bed keys. Salvage bags were used to quickly collect and save valuables, and bed keys were used to separate the wooden frame of a bed (often the most valuable item in a home at the time) into pieces for safe and rapid removal from the fire.^[12]

The first American attempt at fire insurance failed after a large fire in Charlestown, Massachusetts in 1736. Later in 1740, Benjamin Franklin organized the Philadelphia Contributionship to provide fire insurance, which was more successful. The Contributionship adopted “fire marks” to easily identify insured buildings. Firefighting started to become formalized with rules for providing buckets, ladders, and hooks, and with the formation of volunteer companies. A chain of command was also established.^[11]

Firefighter duties

A firefighter’s goals are to save lives, protect property, and protect the environment. A fire can rapidly spread and endanger many lives, but with modern firefighting techniques, catastrophe can often be avoided. To prevent fires from starting, a firefighter’s duties may include public education about fire safety and conducting fire inspections of locations to verify their adherence to local fire codes.

Firefighter skills

Firefighting requires skills in fire suppression, rescue, and hazardous materials mitigation. Firefighters must also have, or be able to acquire, knowledge of department organizations, operations, and procedures,^[4] and the district or city street system^[4] they will have to negotiate in order to perform their duties.

They must meet minimum physical fitness standards and learn various firefighting duties within a reasonable period^[4]

Examples are:

• Building construction
• Fire dynamics
• Firefighting PPE
• Fire extinguishers
• Ropes and knots
• Ground ladders
• Forcible entry
• Structural search and rescue
• Tactical ventilation
• Fire hose operations and streams
• Fire suppression
• Overhaul, property conservation, and scene preservation
• Building materials, structural collapse, and effects of fire suppression
• Technical rescue support and vehicle extrication operations
• Foam fire fighting, liquid fires, and gas fires
• Hazardous materials response

Specialized skills

Specialized areas of operations may require subject-specific training.^[13][14]

Examples are:

• Fire apparatus driver/operator – trained to drive fire apparatus to and from fires and other emergencies, operate fire-apparatus pumps and aerial devices, and maintain apparatus.
• Hazardous materials technician – certified to mitigate hazardous materials and CBRNE emergencies.
• Rescue technician – certified to perform rescues such as high-angle rope, trench, structural collapse, confined space, vehicle and machinery, water, ice, and cave or mine rescues.
• Airport firefighter – trained in ARFF.
• Wildland firefighter – trained to extinguish fires in outdoor vegetation, including the wildland/urban interface.

Shift hours

Full-time career firefighters typically follow a 24-hour shift schedule, although some fire departments work 8- or 12-hour shifts.^[15] Australian firefighters work a 10/14 shift, in which the day shift works ten hours and the night shift works 14 hours.^[16] Firefighting personnel are split up into alternating shifts. Usually, the 24-hour shifts are followed by two days off.^[4] The shift personnel arrive for roll call at a specified time, ready to complete a regular tour of duty.^[4] While on shift, the firefighter remains at the fire station unless relieved or assigned other duties.^[4]

Fire wardens

In fire fighting, there are also people designated as fire wardens, also known as the chief officer. Their duties vary, some may ensure evacuation of that part of the building for which they are responsible; others may be responsible for fire control in a particular area, direct a crew in the suppression of forest fires, or function as fire patrolmen in a logging area.^[17]

The chief officer is in charge of his firefighters during fires or emergencies, and he is expected to command and control the overall situation while effectively combating a fire or other emergency.^[4] Chief officers must be able to evaluate their firefighters, use sound judgement when deciding when it is time to withdraw firefighters from a fire, and react calmly in emergency situations.^[4] The chief officer must direct the activities of a fire department and supervise all firefighting activities. In addition, he must have extensive knowledge of the city, the location of streets, fire hydrants and fire alarm boxes, and the principal buildings.^[4] Also he must have knowledge of explosives, hazardous chemicals, and the combustion qualities of materials in buildings, homes, and industrial plants.^[4]

In certain jurisdictions, civilians can get certified to be a Fire Warden, and some cities require certain types of buildings, such as high rises, to have a certain number of Fire Wardens. For example, the City of Houston, Texas, requires every tenant in a high-rise to have at least one Fire Warden for every 7500 sq. ft. occupied, and a minimum of two Fire Wardens per floor.^[18] In this example, their duties include investigating any fire alarms (see if there really is a fire and if so, its nature), ensuring the fire department is contacted, directing the evacuation of the facility, activating or delaying activation of fire suppression equipment such as halon and sprinklers (delayed in case of a false alarm), meeting the fire department and taking them to the location of the alarm or to the fire past any security or locked doors, and, if necessary, fighting the fire until the fire department arrives.

Hazards caused by fire

During a fire

One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations is the toxic environment created by combusting materials. The four major hazards are:^[19]

• Smoke, which is becoming increasingly dangerous due to the increased variety and amount of synthetic household materials
• Oxygen deficient atmosphere (21% O₂ is normal and 19.5% O₂ is considered oxygen deficient)
• Elevated temperatures
• Toxic atmospheres

To deal with such hazards, firefighters carry a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA; an open-circuit positive pressure system) to prevent smoke inhalation. These are not oxygen tanks (oxygen as a powerful fire accelerant would represent a grave risk when combined with virtually anything combustible in the presence of fire) but use compressed air in a similar manner to SCUBA diving gear. A firefighter’s SCBA usually hold 30 to 45 minutes of air, depending on the size of the tank and the rate of consumption during strenuous activities. While this gear helps to eliminate the risks, firefighters are still exposed to smoke, toxic dust, fumes and radiation that have contributed to firefighters being 14% more likely to develop cancer.

Obvious risks associated with the immense heat generated by a fire, even without direct contact with the flames (direct flame impingement), such as conductive heat and radiant heat, can cause serious burns even from great distances. There are a number of comparably serious heat-related risks, such as burns from hot gases (e.g., air), steam, and hot and/or toxic smoke. Prolonged, intense exertion in hot environments also increases firefighters’ risk for health-related illnesses, such as rhabdomyolysis.^[20] Accordingly, firefighters are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE) that includes fire-resistant clothing such as Nomex or polybenzimidazole fiber (PBI) and helmets that limit the transmission of heat towards the body. No PPE, however, can completely protect the user from the effects of all possible fire conditions.^[21]

Heat can cause flammable liquid contained in tanks to explode violently, producing what is called a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion).^[22] Some chemical products such as ammonium nitrate fertilizers can also explode, potentially causing physical trauma from blast or shrapnel injuries. Sufficient heat causes human flesh to burn as fuel, or the water within to boil, leading to potentially severe medical problems.

Furthers risks include the occurrences of backdrafts. Backdrafts occur when there is a large amount of oxygen introduced to an oxygen-depleted fire.^[23] If a fire is compartmentalized and most or all of the oxygen has been burned up, there is a high risk of backdraft if something such as a window or door is opened. Introducing oxygen to a low burning fire can be devastating as it will ignite all of the oxygen along the way.^[24] It can also be heard from miles away as it has a concussive blast that adds to the effect. Firefighters need to have extreme communication at all times on the fire ground as one broken window at the wrong time could seriously harm anyone operating on the building.

Depending on the heat of the fire, burns can occur in a fraction of a second.

Additional risks of fire are the obscuring of vision due to smoke, potentially causing a fall or disorientation; becoming trapped in a fire; and structural collapse.^[25]

“Three hours of fighting a fire stiffens arteries and impairs cardiac function in firefighters” according to a study by Bo Fernhall, a professor in the department of kinesiology and community health in the College of Applied Health Sciences, and Gavin Horn, director of research at the Illinois Fire Service Institute. The conditions (observed in healthy male firefighters) are “also apparent found in weightlifters and endurance athletes…”^[26]