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Ancient Indian architecture

Ancient Indian architecture is one of the Indian subcontinent from the Indian Bronze Age to around 800 CE. By this endpoint Buddhism in India had greatly declined, and Hinduism was predominant, and religious and secular building styles had taken on forms, with great regional variation, which they largely retain even after some forceful changes brought about by the arrival of first Islam, and then Europeans.

Much early Indian architecture was in wood, which has almost always decayed or burnt, or brick, which has often been taken away for re-use. The large amount of Indian rock-cut architecture, essentially beginning around 250 BCE, is therefore especially important, as much of it clearly adapts forms from contemporary constructed buildings of which no examples remain. There are also a number of important sites where the floor-plan has survived to be excavated, but the upper parts of structures have vanished.

In the Bronze Age the first cities emerged in the Indus Valley Civilization. Archaeology has unearthed urbanization phase from early Harappan in Kalibangan to the late Harappan phase when urbanization declined but was preserved in few pockets. The urbanization in the Gangetic plains began as early as 1200 BC with the emergence of fortified cities and appearance of Northern Black polished ware.”^[2][a][4] The Mahajanapada period was characterized by Indian coins and use of stone in the Indian architecture. The Mauryan period is considered as the beginning of the classical period of Indian architecture. Nagara and Dravidian architectural styles developed in the early medieval period with the rise of Hindu revivalism and predominant role of Hindu temple architecture in the Indian Subcontinent.

Period (5th – 2nd Millennium BCE)[edit]

Early Harappan phase[edit]

Although the urban phase of Harappa has been dated back to 2600 BC, excavation at Kalibangan from the early or proto-Harappan period already shows an urban development with fortification, grid layout of the city and drain system. The settlement consisted of a fortified city mostly made of mud-brick architecture but characterized by an appearance of fired bricks around 3000 BC which was used to line the drains of the city. Planned settlements from an early Harappan era with structures parallel to the streets which run perpendicular to each other with public drainage system has been uncovered at the site of Rakhigarhi, one of the biggest urbanized areas of the Indus valley civilization dating back to 4000 BC-3200 BC. Even earlier phase dated 4400-4200 BC has marked the appearance of wedge shaped mud bricks with rectangular houses.^[6]

Building complex of Bhavnagar

Archaeologists discovered a huge building complex dating back to 3600-3300 BC which was probably a storage complex, typical mature harappan brick ratios of 4:2:1 were also noted along with a stone platform and the beginnings of Harrapan silo pit. The complex had rooms with rectangular or squarish plan which were all interconnected by some common wall.^[7]

English Bond and building material[edit]

While in contemporary Bronze Age cultures outside India sun-dried mud bricks were the dominant building material, the Indus Valley civilization preferred to use fired “terracotta” brick instead. A prominent feature of Harappan architecture was also the first use anywhere in the world of English bond in building with bricks. This type of bonding utilized alternate headers and stretchers which is a stronger method of construction. Clay was usually used as cementing material but where better strength was needed, such as for the drains, lime and gypsum mortar was preferred instead. In architecture such as the Great Bath, bitumen was used for waterproofing. The Use of bitumen has been attested as early as the Mehrgarh period, one of the earliest uses in the world as well. The remarkable vertical alignment of the building indicates the use of a Plumb line. The bricks were produced in a standardized ratio of 4:2:1, found throughout the Indus Valley Civilization.^[8]

Larger buildings[edit]

Harappan seals show architecture besides horned deities which has been translated as either temples, shrines or houses with an upward curving roof with fish tail endings on four corners. The seals indicate formal places of worship.^[9] The excavation at Banawali in present-day Haryana has also yielded an Apsidal plan which has been interpreted as a temple.^[10]

Rectangular stadium-like spaces provided with steps and gateways are known from Dholavira and Juni Kuran.^[11] Two stadiums were constructed at Juni Kuran, perhaps one for the commoners and the other for the people with higher status.

At Dholavira, possible funerary architecture was found surrounding a dried up lake and consists of tumuli, sometimes resembling hemispherical domes, constructed using mud bricks or stone slabs. The plan of the base of tumulus is in the shape of a spoked wheel with a chamber in the centre.^[12]

Juni Kuran and Mohenjo Daro have pillared halls. In the case of Mohenjodaro L area, the pillars of the hall were constructed using baked bricks and in the case of Juni Kuran, they were made of sandstone pillars with elaborately designed base.^[11][13]

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  Dholavira ruins

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  Stepped reservoir

  Domestic Architecture[edit]

  The domestic houses were made of bricks and usually flat roofed, the wooden doors were provided with hangings and a lock at the bottom. The houses were single or double storied. The windows were provided with lattice shutters for airflow and privacy and ledge to stop rainwater from entering the house. The houses were usually provided with bathing platform which were connected to the public drain through in house drain. Latrines were generally simple commodme had a small drain leading outside to a second sump pot. The latrines and bathing platforms were located in a room attached to the outer wall. Kitchen were open air situated in a courtyard as well as closed rooms, hearths oval, circular and rectangular in shape were also used in the house, keyhole ovens with central pillars were used for roasting meat or baking breads.^[14]

  Late Harappan period[edit]

  After the collapse of the mature Harappan urban period, some cities still remained urban and inhabited. Sites like Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, Kudwala (38.1 hectares) in Cholistan and Daimabad (20 Ha) in Maharashtra are considered urban. Daimabad (2000-1000 BC) developed a fortification wall with bastions in its Jorwe culture period (1400-1000 BC) and had public buildings such as an elliptical temple, an apsidal temple and shows evidence of planning in the layout of rectangular houses and streets or lanes and planned streets. The area had risen to 50 hectares in with a population of 10,000 people. A 580-meter long protection wall dated 1500 BC was found at Bet Dwarka which is believed to have been damaged and submerged following a sea storm.^[15][16] A warehouse dated to 1500 BC at Prahbas Patan (Somnath) from late Harappan period is made of rubble stones set in mud mortar, the artifact includes a stealite seal and storage jars.^[17]

  Non Harappan architecture[edit]

  Balathal defense architecture, stone and mud brick residential structures of Ahar Banas,^[18] defensive wall is characterised by mud based core having stone revetments with rectangular bastion dated c. 2400-1800 BCE, Sanghol and Rupar of Bara culture are some of the non Harappan chalcolithic urban developments that took place in India as well.